2.1 Kinetic particle theory

(a) describe the solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter and explain their interconversion in terms of the kinetic particle theory and of the energy changes involved

(b) describe and explain evidence for the movement of particles in liquids and gases (the treatment of Brownian motion is not required)

(c) explain everyday effects of diffusion in terms of particles, e.g. the spread of perfumes and cooking aromas; tea and coffee grains in water

(d) state qualitatively the effect of molecular mass on the rate of diffusion and explain the dependence of rate of diffusion on temperature.

2.2 Atomic structure

(a) state the relative charges and approximate relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an electron

(b) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of an atom as containing protons and neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus and electrons arranged in shells (energy levels) (knowledge of s, p, d and f classification is not required; a copy of the Periodic Table will be available in Papers 1 and 2)

(c) define proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number

(d) interpret and use symbols such as C126

(e) define the term isotopes

(f) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers.

2.3 Structure and properties of materials

(a) describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures

(b) compare the structure of simple molecular substances, e.g. methane; iodine, with those of giant molecular substances, e.g. poly(ethene); sand (silicon dioxide); diamond; graphite in order to deduce their properties

(c) compare the bonding and structures of diamond and graphite in order to deduce their properties such as electrical conductivity, lubricating or cutting action (candidates will not be required to draw the structures)

(d) deduce the physical and chemical properties of substances from their structures and bonding and vice versa.

2.4 Ionic bonding

(a) describe the formation of ions by electron loss/gain in order to obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas

(b) describe the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-metals, e.g. NaCl; MgCl2

(c) state that ionic materials contain a giant lattice in which the ions are held by electrostatic attraction, e.g. NaCl (candidates will not be required to draw diagrams of ionic lattices)

(d) deduce the formulae of other ionic compounds from diagrams of their lattice structures, limited to binary compounds

(e) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their lattice structure.

2.5 Covalent bonding

(a) describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons in order to gain the electronic configuration of a noble gas

(b) describe, using ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-metallic elements, e.g. H2; O2; H2O; CH4; CO2

(c) deduce the arrangement of electrons in other covalent molecules

(d) relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their structure and bonding.

2.6 Metallic bonding

(a) describe metals as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’

(b) relate the electrical conductivity of metals to the mobility of the electrons in the structure (see also 9.1(a)).